Coxeter element

In mathematics, a Coxeter element is an element of an irreducible Coxeter group which is a product of all simple reflections. The product depends on the order in which they are taken, but different orderings produce conjugate elements, which have the same order. This order is known as the Coxeter number. They are named after British-Canadian geometer H.S.M. Coxeter, who introduced the groups in 1934 as abstractions of .

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Definitions Note that this article assumes a finite Coxeter group. For infinite Coxeter groups, there are multiple of Coxeter elements, and they have infinite order.

There are many different ways to define the Coxeter number of an irreducible root system.

• The Coxeter number is the order of any Coxeter element;.
• The Coxeter number is where is the rank, and is the number of reflections. In the crystallographic case, is half the number of root system; and is the dimension of the corresponding semisimple Lie algebra.
• If the highest root is $\backslash sum\; m\_i\; \backslash alpha\_i$ for simple roots , then the Coxeter number is $1\; +\; \backslash sum\; m\_i.$
• The Coxeter number is the highest degree of a fundamental invariant of the Coxeter group acting on polynomials.

The Coxeter number for each Dynkin type is given in the following table:

The invariants of the Coxeter group acting on polynomials form a polynomial algebra whose generators are the fundamental invariants; their degrees are given in the table above. Notice that if is a degree of a fundamental invariant then so is .

The eigenvalues of a Coxeter element are the numbers $e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\backslash frac\{m-1\}\{h\}\}$ as runs through the degrees of the fundamental invariants. Since this starts with , these include the primitive th root of unity, $\backslash zeta\_h\; =\; e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\backslash frac\{1\}\{h\}\},$ which is important in the Coxeter plane, below.

The dual Coxeter number is 1 plus the sum of the coefficients of simple roots in the highest short root of the dual root system.

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Group order There are relations between the order of the Coxeter group and the Coxeter number :Regular polytopes, p. 233 $$\backslash begin\{align\}$$

 {} [p]:& \quad \frac{2h}{g_p} = 1 \\[4pt]
 [p,q]:& \quad \frac{8}{g_{p,q}} = \frac{2}{p} + \frac{2}{q} -1 \\[4pt]
 [p,q,r]:& \quad \frac{64h}{g_{p,q,r}} = 12 - p - 2q - r + \frac{4}{p} + \frac{4}{r} \\[4pt]
 [p,q,r,s]:& \quad \frac{16}{g_{p,q,r,s}} = \frac{8}{g_{p,q,r}} + \frac{8}{g_{q,r,s}} + \frac{2}{ps} - \frac{1}{p} - \frac{1}{q} - \frac{1}{r} - \frac{1}{s} +1 \\[4pt]
 \vdots \qquad & \qquad \vdots
     

\end{align}

For example, has : $$\backslash begin\{align\}$$

 &\frac{64 \times 30}{g_{3,3,5}} = 12 - 3 - 6 - 5 + \frac{4}{3} + \frac{4}{5} = \frac{2}{15}, \\[4pt]
 &\therefore g_{3,3,5} = \frac{1920\times 15}{2} = 960 \times 15 = 14400.
     

\end{align}

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Coxeter elements Distinct Coxeter elements correspond to orientations of the Coxeter diagram (i.e. to Dynkin quivers): the simple reflections corresponding to source vertices are written first, downstream vertices later, and sinks last. (The choice of order among non-adjacent vertices is irrelevant, since they correspond to commuting reflections.) A special choice is the alternating orientation, in which the simple reflections are partitioned into two sets of non-adjacent vertices, and all edges are oriented from the first to the second set.George Lusztig, Introduction to Quantum Groups, Birkhauser (2010) The alternating orientation produces a special Coxeter element satisfying $w^\{h/2\}=\; w\_0,$ where is the longest element, provided the Coxeter number is even.

For $A\_\{n-1\}\; \backslash cong\; S\_n,$ the symmetric group on elements, Coxeter elements are certain -cycles: the product of simple reflections $(1,2)\; (2,3)\; \backslash cdots\; (n-1,n)$ is the Coxeter element $(1,2,3,\backslash dots,\; n)$. For even, the alternating orientation Coxeter element is: $$(1,2)(3,4)\backslash cdots\; (2,3)(4,5)\; \backslash cdots\; =\; (2,4,6,\backslash ldots,n\{-\}2,n,\; n\{-\}1,n\{-\}3,\backslash ldots,5,3,1).$$ There are $2^\{n-2\}$ distinct Coxeter elements among the $(n\{-\}1)!$ -cycles.

The dihedral group is generated by two reflections that form an angle of $\backslash tfrac\{2\backslash pi\}\{2p\},$ and thus the two Coxeter elements are their product in either order, which is a rotation by $\backslash pm\; \backslash tfrac\{2\backslash pi\}\{p\}.$

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Coxeter plane For a given Coxeter element , there is a unique plane on which acts by rotation by This is called the Coxeter plane Coxeter Planes and More Coxeter Planes John Stembridge and is the plane on which has eigenvalues $e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\backslash frac\{1\}\{h\}\}$ and $e^\{-2\backslash pi\; i\backslash frac\{1\}\{h\}\}\; =\; e^\{2\backslash pi\; i\backslash frac\{h-1\}\{h\}\}.$ This plane was first systematically studied in , and subsequently used in to provide uniform proofs about properties of Coxeter elements.

The Coxeter plane is often used to draw diagrams of higher-dimensional polytopes and root systems – the vertices and edges of the polytope, or roots (and some edges connecting these) are orthogonally projected onto the Coxeter plane, yielding a Petrie polygon with -fold rotational symmetry. For root systems, no root maps to zero, corresponding to the Coxeter element not fixing any root or rather axis (not having eigenvalue 1 or −1), so the projections of orbits under form -fold circular arrangements and there is an empty center, as in the diagram at above right. For polytopes, a vertex may map to zero, as depicted below. Projections onto the Coxeter plane are depicted below for the .

In three dimensions, the symmetry of a regular polyhedron, with one directed Petrie polygon marked, defined as a composite of 3 reflections, has rotoinversion symmetry , , order . Adding a mirror, the symmetry can be doubled to antiprismatic symmetry, , , order . In orthogonal 2D projection, this becomes dihedral symmetry, , , order .

Petrie polygons of the Platonic solids, showing 4-fold, 6-fold, and 10-fold symmetry.

In four dimensions, the symmetry of a regular polychoron, with one directed Petrie polygon marked is a double rotation, defined as a composite of 4 reflections, with symmetry On Quaternions and Octonions, 2003, John Horton Conway and Derek A. Smith (John H. Conway), (#1', Patrick du Val (1964)Patrick Du Val, Homographies, quaternions and rotations, Oxford Mathematical Monographs, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1964.), order .

Petrie polygons of the regular 4D solids, showing 5-fold, 8-fold, 12-fold and 30-fold symmetry.

In five dimensions, the symmetry of a regular 5-polytope, with one directed Petrie polygon marked, is represented by the composite of 5 reflections.

In dimensions 6 to 8 there are 3 exceptional Coxeter groups; one uniform polytope from each dimension represents the roots of the exceptional Lie groups . The Coxeter elements are 12, 18 and 30 respectively. {| class=wikitable |+

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